The Breast Tax: Unveiling a Legacy of Resistance

The breast tax, known as "Mulakkaram," was a controversial practice imposed in the 19th century in the Travancore kingdom, Kerala. Lower-caste women were taxed based on their breast size, and they bravely resisted this oppressive system, eventually leading to its abolition in 1924.

The lower caste women were not allowed to wear upper-body clothes | Source: MobyGeek

In the 19th century, the King of Travancore implemented a policy known as the breast tax, also referred to as "Mulakkaram." This tax primarily targeted lower-caste women within the community and was a means to perpetuate the rigid caste system of the time.

As per this traditional requirement, lower-caste women were compelled to bare their breasts, as they were not allowed to wear upper garments due to the oppressive caste system prevalent during that period. Refusal to comply with this practice resulted in them being subjected to fines as a punitive measure.

The amount of tax imposed on each woman was determined by the size of their breasts, - With larger breasts, one had to bear a heavier tax burden.

Women of the lower caste group were not permitted to cover themselves above the waist | Source: The Cognate

A topless woman from the Travancore dynasty | Source: The Sentinel

This practice particularly targeted the Ezhava and Nadar communities. This tax was initiated at the onset of puberty and was systematically enforced by upper-caste men in Travancore. Officials would visit households to collect this tax from lower-caste women who had reached this stage of life.

The reasons behind this levy were twofold: firstly, it aimed to humiliate and subjugate lower-caste individuals, and secondly, it burdened them with debt that perpetuated their poverty. Tragically, while the lower-caste population endured these hardships, the upper-class Brahmins and Nairs continued to prosper without such burdens.

Lower-caste women not only had to pay this tax for the simple act of covering their breasts, but they also suffered immoral and unjust treatment from men of higher castes. In some instances, if these women dared to wear upper garments, upper-class men would shamefully tear them apart in public.

Painting on Canvas by Chitrakaran Murali, reflecting the struggles of the lower caste (Channar) women | Source: Scrolldroll

Furthermore, the lower-caste populace was denied the right to wear jewellery, and men were prohibited from growing moustaches. The breast tax persisted for a considerable duration, and lower-caste women endured its weight. However, tensions escalated in 1859 when Travancore officials publicly stripped two lower-caste women simply for wearing upper-body clothing.

Nangeli, a lower-caste woman hailing from Cherthala, played a pivotal role in bringing an end to the oppressive breast tax. She found herself unable to afford this tax due to her family's impoverished circumstances. In a bold act of resistance against the unjust taxation system, Nangeli steadfastly refused to expose her breasts in public.

Upon learning of Nangeli's audacious defiance and her refusal to pay the tax, a tax inspector was dispatched to address the situation and halt her apparent violation of the law. When the inspector arrived at Nangeli's residence in response to her refusal to pay the malicious caste-based breast tax, he made a shocking discovery. It was reported that Nangeli had taken a drastic and courageous step in protest against the unjust tax system. She had severed her breasts, a gruesome and powerful act of resistance that deeply affected the officer, causing him to hastily retreat.

Tragically, Nangeli's injuries proved fatal, as she succumbed to the severe bleeding, leading to her untimely death. It was this bold and selfless act by Nangeli that ultimately played a significant role in prompting the abolition of the breast tax.

During Nangeli's funeral, another chapter of this tragic incident unfolded. Her husband, Chirkundan, made a heart-wrenching decision. He chose to join his beloved wife in death by plunging into the funeral pyre, ending his own life. The true motive behind his act remains shrouded in uncertainty, leaving open the question of whether it was a form of protest against the breast tax or simply an expression of profound grief.

In memory of the sacrifices made by Nangeli and Chirkundan, the site where both of them met their tragic fates has come to be known as "Mulachiparambu," a place also referred to as "the land of the women's breast."

Amidst a series of conflicting accounts, a divergent narrative emerges, suggesting that Nangeli's tragic fate may not have been solely an act of personal protest. Some accounts propose an alternative scenario, one that hints at potential foul play, possibly orchestrated by influential figures such as members of the ruling upper caste, colonial authorities, or aristocrats. This alternate perspective adds complexity to the story, offering a different angle to Nangeli's untimely demise.

However, despite the various accounts and uncertainties surrounding Nangeli's tragic fate, what remains clear is that her courageous stance played a significant role in bringing about the end of the brutal breast tax.

In Padmashree Murali's work "The Legend of Nangeli," Nangeli's story is depicted in a comic format | Source: Behance

Nangeli's courageous stand against oppression has become a symbol of profound resistance, and she is celebrated as a local legend. After Nangeli's remarkable act, there are reports of similar incidents, but it wasn't until the 19th century that many women in these communities, especially after embracing Christianity, began to challenge the imposition of the breast tax.

At first, local rulers and traditionalists opposed the women's protests, as they aimed to uphold the tradition of uncovered breasts as a symbol of allegiance to the established caste system. However, with the spread of Christianity, new standards of modesty emerged that diverged from established customs. This influenced many women's choice to cover their chests.

In a determined and unwavering struggle, the lower-caste communities pressed on until they successfully convinced the ruling authorities to dismantle the unjust taxation system. Particularly noteworthy was the indomitable spirit of women from the Nadar communities, whose quest for the right to cover their breasts gained prominence during the Channar revolt spanning from 1839 to 1859. This relentless effort bore fruit, as the oppressive breast tax was officially abolished in 1924, marking a significant milestone in the journey toward equality and justice.